Housing Policy of Conservative Government: 1979 to 1997

Housing Policy of Conservative Government: 1979 to 1997 What aspects of the housing policies of conservative Governments between 1979 and 1997 reflect the key policy principles of public choice theory? The following will discuss the aspects of the Conservatives housing policies between 1979 and 1997 that reflected the key policy principles of public choice theory. When the Conservatives came to power they were committed to reducing the size and the role of the public sector which had consequences for the housing policies they pursued in office. Reducing the quantity of public sector housing, as will be examined, fitted in with the principles of public choice theory. The principles of public choice theory are mainly based upon the idea that the public should be free to make choices about the services that are available to them. Services such as education, healthcare provision, and specifically here regarding housing policies (Dorey, 2005 chapter 6). Britain had a large public housing sector of council houses that were rented to people at lower rent levels than paid to private landlords. Council tenants had little choice in the location, quality, and costs of council housing (Parsons, 1995 pp. 306 326). Council housing had not been built to fit in with the principles of public choice theory, it was solely intended to provide affordable housing for those people that could not afford to buy their own homes, or afford private sector rents (Parsons, 1995). Housing policies are not usually designed for the benefit of those that analyse public policy (John, 1998 p. 9). Before 1979 central government set quotas for how much public housing could be built , whilst councils allocated houses in order of the most needy first. The destruction of housing during the Second World War meant that high levels of council house construction had been necessary (Sandbrook, 2005 p. 179). Margaret Thatcher wished to increase people’s choices and opportunities to own their own homes. This was partly to increase levels of home ownership and partly to reduce the role of government in people’s lives (Fisher, Denver Benyon, 2003, p.15). The selling off of council housing certainly was a key aspect of the Conservatives housing policies that reflected the principles of public choice theory. That it did so was due to coincidence rather than design. The main motivations behind the selling off of council housing were political, economical, and ideological. The Conservatives believed that it allowed more people to own their own homes and would increase their electoral support. Homeowners were more likely to vote Conservative than council house t enants who had traditionally been strong Labour supporters (Coxall, Robins Leach, 2003, p.28). Economically and ideologically selling off council housing fitted in with the aim of reducing the public sector. It also proved to be one of the most popular Conservative policies between 1979 and 1997, more than a million families bought their council houses (Moran, 2005, p. 18). For the Conservatives under Thatcher’s leadership, housing policies were part of their plans to change the economy and society away from the post-war consensus of Keynesian economics and a welfare state in which people had no influence over the way services were provided (Eatwell Wright, 2003 p.147). The popularity and take up rates for the right to buy council housing was a de facto privatisation of large parts of the public housing sector. Its impact on the British economy was similar to the privatisation of the public utilities, the reduction of trade union power, and the adoption of monetarist policies (Dorey, 2005 chapter 6). The Conservatives were aware that not every council house tenant was either willing or able to buy their homes from their respective local authorities. Therefore the Conservatives decided to further reduce the level of public housing controlled by councils by transferring whole housing estates to non-profit organisations such as housing associations dubbed ‘Registered Social Landlords (RSLs)’. Tenants were given the right to choose between local authorities and RSLs controlling the management of their housing estates. The right to opt out or stay under local authority control nominally gave tenants a greater freedom to live their lives. Taken at face value this was another aspect of Conservative policy that followed the principles of public choice theory (Coxall, Robins, Leach, 2003 p. 28). It was also another example of the Conservatives trying to reduce the powers of local authorities (Parsons, 1995 pp. 306 326). Under the Conservatives the number of houses being built for the public sector dropped dramatically as local authorities were not allowed to use the money from council house sales to fund new construction (Parsons, 1995 pp. 306 -326). Instead new house construction was mainly undertaken by private sector building firms. The public had more choice about where they lived and the size of their homes, if they could afford to buy their homes. The more limited number of homes built for the public sector was constructed for RSLs and housing associations. Removing the management of public housing from the control of local authorities was intended to make social housing provision more cost effective and more responsive to the needs and wishes of their remaining tenants (Stoker, 1999 p. 53). The Conservative governments were also hopeful that the transfer of public housing would save money, as RSLs would seek to fund improvements and new construction through partnerships with private sector bu sinesses. Since 1997, New Labour has not substantially altered housing policies as a means to limit expenditure as much as reflecting a wish to continue with policies influenced by the principles of public choice theory (Seldon Kavanagh, 2005 pp. 70 – 71). Therefore, aspects of the housing policies of the Conservative governments between 1979 and 1997 reflected the key principles of public choice theory from 1979 the Conservatives were intent on reducing the level of people that lived in council housing through the right to buy scheme. That scheme allowed existing tenants to purchase their homes at discounted prices. Right to buy fitted in with Margaret Thatcher’s political, economic and ideological beliefs that the public sector should be reduced to allow people to make their own decisions and become homeowners. Thatcher rightly assumed that council tenants that bought their own homes would be more likely to vote Conservative. Not only did selling off council housing reflect the principles of public theory, it had the political advantage of being electorally popular. For people that could not afford to buy their council houses the Conservatives introduced the possibility of whole estates opting out of local authority control ma naged by RSLs. The Conservatives managed to achieve their aim of increasing home ownership in Britain as over a million council houses were bought by their tenants. Bibliography Coxall B, Robins L Leach R (2003) Contemporary British Politics 4th edition, Palgrave, London Dorey P (2005) Developments in British Public Policy, Sage Publications, London Eatwell Wright (2003) Contemporary Political Ideologies 2nd Edition, Continuum, London Fisher J, Denver D, Benyon J, (2003) Central Debates in British Politics, Longman, London John P, (1998) Analysing Public Policy, Pinter, London Moran M, (2005) Politic and Governance in the UK, Palgrave, Basingstoke Parsons W, (1995) Public Policy, Edward Elgar, Aldershot Sandbrook D, (2005) Never had it so good – A History of Britain from Suez to the Beatles, Abacus, London Seldon A Kavanagh D, (2005) The Blair Effect 2001 – 5, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Stoker G, (1999) The New Management of British Local Governance, MacMillan Press Ltd, London

Malware Discussion Essay

The use of malware is a way for attackers to gain access to person information from a personal computer or company information from an organization. There are several types of malware which include virus, rootkits, and worms. Each malware serves different purposes to achieve the goal of an attacker. An attacker could be envious of a past lover and could send a virus to their email to shutdown the operations of their computer. A disgruntle employee could send a worm to their old company and slow down production of the company. A random person looking for a thrill could set up a rootkit on a company’s network to gain access to company secrets. Each malware is given a name specified for its cause, for example the Trojan Worm. The name is given to this virus because of the activity that happens once it is executed. Viruses are named by antivirus companies who avoid using proper names. The Melissa virus was named by its creator, David Smith, for a Miami stripper. This paper will discuss 5 different types of malware and inform the targets for these attacks. Discussion of Malware The first malware that will be discussed is the Melissa Virus. This virus was detected on the 26th of March 1999. This virus is a Microsoft Word macro virus that is delivered as an E-mail attachment. The virus is activated when an attachment named, list. doc is opened. When it is activated, the Melissa virus searches the Microsoft Outlook address book and sends a message to the first 50 names. This virus proliferates itself as users open the attachment. Melissa doesn’t work on Outlook Express, just Outlook. The message appears to come from the person just infected, which means that the message will seem to come from a recognizable email address. Melissa doesn’t destroy files or other resources, but has the possibility to immobilize corporate and other mails servers. The origin of the Melissa virus is from an Internet alt. sex newsgroup and contains a list of passwords for various Web sites that require memberships. Melissa also has the ability to disable some security safeguards. Users of Microsoft Word 97 or 2000 with Microsoft Outlook 97, 98, or 200 are most likely to be affected. When the virus attacks, it can infect the copy of Microsoft Word that is installed as well as any following Word documents that are created. It can also change the setting of Microsoft Word to make it easier for the computer to become infected by it and succeeding macro viruses. Users of Word 97 or 2000 containing any other E-mail programs can be affected also; the difference is that Melissa will not automatically redistribute itself to the contacts through other E-mail programs. It can still however infect the copy of Microsoft installed on the machine. This infected copy can still be shared with others if a document is created in the infected copy and distributed through E-mail, floppy disk, or FTP. Although the virus won’t appeal to the mailout on a Mac system, it can be stored and resent from Macs. To avoid this virus, it is suggested to not double-click any file, such as an E-mail attachment, without scanning it first with antivirus software, regardless of who it is from. The next malware to be discussed is SQL injection which is an attack where malicious code is placed in within strings that are shortly passed on to an example of SQL Server for parsing and implementation. A form of SQL injection consists of direct placing of code into user-input variables that link with SQL commands and executed. An attack that is not as direct, inserts malicious code into strings that are intended for storage in a table or as metadata. The malicious code is executed once the stored strings are linked into a dynamic SQL command. In SQL Injection, the hacker uses SQL queries and ingenuity to get to the database of susceptible corporate data through the web application. Websites with features as login pages, support and product request forms, feedback forms, search pages, shopping carts and the general delivery of dynamic content, shape modern websites and provide businesses with the means necessary to communicate with prospects and customers are all vulnerable to SQL Injection attacks. The reason behind this is because the fields available for user input allow SQL statements to pass through and query the database directly. SQL Injection flaws are introduced when software developers create dynamic database queries that include user supplied input. There have been several reports of SQL attacks, dating back to 2005. The websites that have became victim to these attacks range from Microsoft U. K. to Lady GaGa’s website. To avoid SQL injection flaws, it is suggested that developers need to either: a) stop writing dynamic queries; and/or b) prevent user supplied input which contains malicious SQL from affecting the logic of the executed query. The next malware discussed will be Stuxnet. Stuxnet is a computer worm that targets Siemens industrial software and equipment running Microsoft Windows, and was discovered in June 2010. Although Stuxnet isn’t the first attack to target industrial systems, it is however the first discovered malware that actually moles on and weakens industrial systems. Stuxnet is also the first malware to include a programmable logic controller rootkit. Stuxnet is designed to target specifically Siemens supervisory control and data acquisition systems that are configured to control and monitor specific industrial processes. The PLCs are infected by Stuxnet weakening the Step-7 software application that is used to reprogram these devices. Stuxnet is different from other malware as it only attacks computers and networks that meet a specific configuration requirement. Stuxnet contains a safeguard and if Siemens software isn’t discovered on the infected computer will prevent each infected computer from spreading the worm to more than three others, and to erase itself on June 24, 2012. Along with other things for its victims, Stuxnets contains code for a man-in-the-middle attack. Stuxnet will spread through removable devices such as an USB drive in a Windows operating system by using a four zero-day attack. After it has infected the removable drive, it uses other utilizations and techniques to infect and update other computers inside private networks. Stuxnet infects Step 7 software by infecting project files belong to Siemen’s WinCC/PCS 7 SCADA control software and weakens a key communication library of WinCC called s7otbxdx. dll. It is recommended by Siemens to contact customer support if and infection is detected and advises installing Microsoft patches for security vulnerabilities and prohibiting the use of third-party USB flash drives. Next, Zeus, also known as Zbot virus will be discussed. This virus is geared toward financial institutions such as banks. Zeus was first discovered in July 2007 after being used to steal information from the US DOT. Zeus is set up to infect a consumers PC, and wait until the log onto a list of targeted banks and financial institutions and steal their credentials and sends them to a remote server in real time. Zeus can also inject HTML into a page that is provided by the browser, this displays its own content instead of the actual page from the bank’s web server. By doing this, it is able to obtain users information such card numbers and pins. According to SecureWorks, ZeuS is sold in the criminal underground as a kit for around $3000-4000, and is likely the one malware most utilized by criminals specializing in financial fraud. According to Lucian Constantin, Zeus is one of the oldest and most popular crimeware toolkits available on the underground market. Up until this year the Trojan could only be acquired for significant sums of money from its original author. However, a few months ago the source code leaked online and now anyone with the proper knowledge can create variations of the malware. Also according to SecureWorks, The latest version of Zeus as of this date is 1. 3. 4. x and is privately sold. The author has gone to great lengths to protect this version using a Hardware-based Licensing System. The author of Zeus has created a hardware-based licensing system for the Zeus Builder kit that you can only run on one computer. Once you run it, you get a code from the specific computer, and then the author gives you a key just for that computer. This is the first time they have seen this level of control for malware. The CTU recommends that businesses and home users carry out online banking and financial transactions on isolated workstations that are not used for general Internet activities, such as web browsing and reading email which could increase the risk of infection. The last malware that will be discussed is the Blaster worm also known as Lovsan, Lovesan, or MSBlast. The Blaster worm spreads on computers that have Windows XP and Windows 2000 as an operating system and was detected in August of 2003. The creator of the B variant of the Blaster worm, Jeffrey Lee Parson was an 18 year old from Hopkins, Minnesota. He was arrested on August 29, 2003, admitted to the creation of the B variant, and was sentenced to 18-months in prison in January 2005. A Windows component known as the DCOM (Distributed Component Object Model) interface which is a known vulnerability of Windows is taken advantage of by Blaster. The DCOM handles messages sent using the RPC (Remote Procedure Call) protocol. Vulnerable systems can be compromised without any interaction from a user, according to Johannes Ullrich, chief technology officer at the SANS Internet Storm Center, which monitors threats to the Internet infrastructure. According to Mikko Hypponen, manager of antivirus research at F-Secure in Helsinki, Blaster unlike the Code Red worm, which contained code for a similar attack against the IP address of White House’s main Web server, targets the windowsupdate. microsoft. com domain, which prevents Microsoft from changing the address of the domain to sidestep the attack. Blaster’s code is small and can be quickly removed using free tools provided by F-Secure as well as other antivirus vendors, Hypponen said. However, customers should patch their systems before removing Blaster to prevent from getting infected again from the worm, he said.

Assessment Writing Essay

My practical work in January 2005 was for option 1. It was a piece of devised drama work and was based on the theme of sisterhood. Our play was about a group of four, seven year old children coming together to help their friend Rachael who is ill. The children act together for Rachael and turn to witchcraft to make her healthier but it fails and at the end of the play Rachael dies. There were 5 people in my drama group which included Rachael, Yasmine, Emily, Rosie and myself. The main theme of our play was sisterhood also the friends acting together to try to make Rachel better this was how sisterhood was used. My contribution to the performance was as a performer. I had to play the role of one of Rachael’s friends who took part in the spell with the other friends. I also contributed by writing some of the play with the other people in my group. We practiced in lessons and during our lunchtimes so that the play would be ready for its performance date. To help me in my work I looked for information on the internet about health spells as we wanted to use one in our performance. I also looked on the internet to find out more information about leukaemia and its symptoms so that we could include them in our play to make it seem more realistic. I also looked at one picture and one painting. The picture was a war picture it symbolises women in the war and that they were needed to help to win the war. The painting was of what they look to be children who look as if they are casting a spell of some sort as the picture looks rather mystical. The most useful material I looked at was the information I found from the internet because it helped me understand the symptoms of leukaemia and to look at different kinds of health spells and for us to choose which one was more relevant for our play. Our piece was set in modern times, however the picture was set in the time of the Second World War and the painting was set it seems in modern times too. The picture and painting were similar to our play because the painting is of children looking as if they are casting a spell as it looks mystical and magical and they look very engrossed in what they are doing this is what we tried to do in our play when we cast the spell. The picture is similar to our play because it is about women pulling together to try and make a difference and in some aspects our play is about the children pulling together to help Rachael get better. The biggest differences were that the play was set in modern times and not in the Second World War and the play was about a group of friends not of women in the Second World War. The people who appear in our production are mainly children. In contrast, those in the painting and the picture are adults and children. You could tell this because the picture is of women coming together but the painting looks of children. We chose to perform in the style of naturalist because we wanted to make out the friendship of them to be as real as possible to create more of an effect with the ending. We used informal language as they were children playing and doing children things. In conclusion, I would like to say that the picture and the painting have helped me by seeing how many things use the aspects of sisterhood in many different ways and it is not always obvious. I contributed a lot into this piece of work, I am pleased with the out come and how the others performed in my group.

Human Rights Violations to Afghan Women - 1492 Words

United States’ humanitarian relief efforts have recently focused much of their efforts on involving the livelihood of Afghanistan women. For decades, these women have been frequent victims of abuse, despite some success by authorities in prosecuting rape cases, forced marriages and domestic violence. Child marriage, selling and buying women to settle disputes, assault and more than a dozen other acts of violence and abuse against women are a common norm in Afghan society. About 87% of women experience physical, psychological or sexual violence. Incidents of violence against women remain largely under-reported because of cultural restraints, social norms and religious beliefs. Because of widespread discrimination, fears of social stigma†¦show more content†¦Women advocacy groups are concerned that restrictions would be placed on women’s ability to work and are calling on key allies to continue to support women’s rights through non-profit funding. The Afghan people are largely opposed to the influence of western nations and want to see Afghans carrying out changes themselves. It is reported that Imams use their sermons to portray a strong anti-Western sentiment. Americans burning Qur’ans and videos negatively displaying the Prophet Muhammad are used to fuel anti-Western sentiment and initiate protests. With the widespread anti-Western sentiment, it will be a challenge for Western workers to train Afghan women. All too often, women of all ages are discriminated against in health, education and the labor market — resulting in negative effects on their freedoms. â€Å"While women here in the U.S. are far better off than those in other countries, and by and large don’t experience what women face in developing countries, we simply can’t turn our backs on the struggles women face elsewhere. 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